nature of kashmir

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Kashmir Valley


Kashmir Valley
Perfection beyond this world makes Kashmir a paradise. The land of sparkling rivers and sleepy lakes, of startling gardens and regal Chinar trees, Kashmir boasts of some of the most beautiful flowering meadows and snow-capped peaks. The abundance of natural beauty has earned the valley a nickname of the 'Switzerland of the East'. It is mesmerizing to see how this endless beauty never fails to charm the viewers with its changing scenes from dazzling white snow of Winters to blooming fragrance of Spring. The sparkling greenery of Summers are welcome too as the flaming beauty of Autumn. The art house of the Seasons, the beauty of Kashmir is complete to the giggling girls with fair Indian complexion and rosy cheeks and the exquisite handicrafts of the area.

Kashmir's Topography
The high snow-capped ridges of the Himalayan range in the east and the Pir Panjal range in the west and south enclose Kashmir. Jhelum River glides across Srinagar and swiftly flow through the winding ways of the valley. The geologists have confirmed the truth behind the popular belief that Kashmir was once a huge lake called the Karewa, which was formed by the blocking of the Jhelum River. However, the river formed a deep gorge through the Pir Panjal range at Uri and carved out its new way. Thus, the waters of the Karewa gradually drained away, leaving behind the stunning valley of Kashmir. One can still find corals and other marine fossils in this region.

The Glorious Name
There have been different versions of the legend behind the name of Kashmir. It is said that the great saint Kashyap Rishi went on a pilgrimage to the place. When he reached Naukabandan near Kaunsarnag, at the request of the people he killed Bahudev, the giant of Satisar and let the water of the lake flow out near Baramulla. Thus, the place came to be known as Kashyapmar or the some other historians dispute that this valley was so called only when the people of Kash caste settled here permanently.

Natural Beauty
Kashmir is famous for its beautiful and natural scenery and varieties of flora and fauna throughout the world. It is also widely known for its different kinds of agricultural products, fruit, vegetables, saffron, herbs, minerals, precious stones and finest kind of embroidery on clothes History of Kashmir


According to a legend, the great sage Kashyap drained a lake and the Brahmins then inhabited it. The place came to be known as Kashmir. A land of turbulent past and present, the missionaries of Emperor Ashoka introduced the Buddhism in the region. The religion flourished under the rule of Kushan in 2nd Century. However, Hinduism continued to be the dominant religion of the region for many centuries. In the 7th Century, Durlabhavarrdhana founded the Karkota dynasty, which was replaced by Utpalas in 855 AD, which were succeeded by the Tantrins, Yaskaras, Guptas abd Loharas ruled respectively. The first Muslim who reigned Kashmir was Shams-ud-Din who replaced the last Hindu king, Udiana Deva in 1346. Moghul emperor Akbar conquered it in 1586 and thus Kashmir became a part of his vast empire.

1757 saw the victory of Ahmed Shah Durrani and Kashmir went out to Pakistan until 1819, when Ranjit Singh won it again to annex it to his Sikh empire. In 1846, the British defeated the Sikhs and sold it to Ghulab Singh of Jammu for Rs 7.5 million under the Treaty of Amritsar and gave him the status of an independent princely ruler of Kashmir. He conquered Ladakh and added it to his dominion. Maharaja Ghulab Singh died in 1857 and was succeeded by Maharaja Rambir Singh. Maharaja Partab Singh and Maharaja Hari Singh ruled over Kashmir in succession.

The India-Pakistan partition took place during the reign of Hari Singh in 1947 and the rulers of princely states were given the choice to freely accede to either India or Pakistan or to remain independent. However, since the Maharaja of Kashmir was a Hindu, he chose to join India despite the majority of the Muslim population in his dominion. However, since then there have been controversies over the decision and Pakistan claims that the decision was partial and the region should be a part of its dominion.
Cuisines of Kashmir


In the olden times, almost every Kashmiri home in the plains had a professional Kashmiri cook in residence, who were the masters of their art. Pure ghee and mustard oil was used freely and every mealtime was an event in itself. Gradually and with time, the ladies of the household learnt the art under the specialized training of these culinary masters and became as proficient as their 'gurus'. As the living costs increased with time, the era of the super cooks came to an end. However, their art has not all lost.

One can frequently taste the delicacies mastered by the chefs at Kashmiri weddings. Kashmiri cuisine that evolved in the Valley several centuries ago acquired some of the scrumptious elements of the Mughal art of cooking and yet has retained a distinct personality of its own. There were two great schools of culinary craftsmanship in Kashmir, namely those of Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims. The basic difference between the two schools was that the abundant use of heeng (asafetida) and curd among the Hindus and the open-handed use of onions and garlics among the Muslims.

Hindu Brahmins or Kashmiri Pandits are not averse to eating meat and are rather voracious meat eaters. However, they prefer goat and that too a young one. The meat is generally chosen from the legs, neck, breast, ribs and shoulders and cut into large pieces. No vegetarian or non-vegetarian dish, except certain kababs, is cooked without curd. The Kashmiris often cook their food by heating it on two sides, from both top and bottom for that distinctive taste. The charcoal fire was their solution in the earlier days but oven serves as a good substitute these days.

Originally, Kashmiri Pandits avoided onions and garlics but now many of them have acquired a taste for them and include them in certain recipes as optional. Though the basic principles of cooking are largely similar in almost all homes, certain Pandit families have adopted minor changes in both ingredients and methods. The most important of the retained traits are the liberal use of aromatic spices and the avoidance of onion and garlic in some homes. Kabargah, Kofta, Dum Alu, Methi Chaman and Firni are some of the delicacies of the region known for their sheer flavor and richness.

Kashmiri Muslims offer another gold mine of gourmet though except for the few restaurants and regional stalls in the country, this art is near extinction. Largely confined to Kashmiri homes in and out of the Valley, the professional cooks and masters of the art are known as 'wazas'. These people claim to be the descendants of the master chefs who migrated from Samarkand and parts of Central Asia at the beginning of the fifteenth century and were a vital part of the entourage that came to Kashmir during the reign of Timur (or Tamarlane).

In the earlier days, the traditional Kashmiri Muslim banquet known as Wazwan, a feast fit for kings, which was perhaps the most unique and elaborate royal spread of meat and delicacies compared to the other parts of India. Comprising of thirty-six courses, fifteen to thirty dishes of Wazwan are varieties of meat. Many of the delicacies are cooked through the entire night under the expert supervision of a Vasta Waza or head chef, assisted by an entourage of wazas under him. Kashmir's most formal meal, Wazwan is not only a ritual but also a ceremony. Traditionally, no spoons, forks or knives are used for eating food. Eaten with fingers, getting invited to a Wazwan is a rare luxury that one can enjoy these days.

Culture of Kashmir


Distinct from the rest of the country, Jammu and Kashmir sports a multifaceted, multicolored and unique cultural blend. Not only the geographical conditions of the state are different but it can also be set apart demographically with varied ethical and social entities, diversity of religions flourishing in the area, different language and cultural forms and heritage albeit with an over-reigning harmony that blends in with the serenity and beauty of the region. One gets dazed by the sheer diversity and richness of art and architecture, fairs and festivals, rites and rituals, seers and sagas, languages and mountains that thrive amongst the unparalleled cultural cohesion, which is exemplary.

Kashmir has been the highest learning centre of Sanskrit and Persian as Indo-Aryanic civilization has originated and flourished here. It also embraced the advent of Islam along with the virtues of Persian civilization such as tolerance, brotherhood and sacrifice. Nature's grand finale of beauty, Kashmir is the masterpiece of earth's creation and the folk performances of Kashmir are intimately mingled with the moods and movements of the seasons.

Jammu, the land of the Dogras, has some beautiful dances and music that originated in its lap and were developed by the hardy and graceful women of the Duggar to divert themselves from the long spell of separations from their soldier husbands and brothers. Besides the purpose of adding cheer to their lives in their free moments, there are folk songs and dances that echo their feelings of separation and the ever-increasing yearning for reunion with the beloved, the hard life on the mountain slopes and various other themes that are connected with their day-to-day lives.


Kud is basically a ritual dance performed in honor of Lok Devatas mostly during nights. A spontaneous dance, people of all ages and sexes participate in this folk dance form accompanied by musical instruments used during this dance are Narshingha, chhaina, flute and drums. Heren is a traditional theatre form performed during Lohri festival and is mostly performed in hilly regions of Jammu. The ladies perform Fumenie and Jagarana on the eve of groom's departure to in-laws house accompanied by the songs are sung by a group of females. This traditional dance form depicts the feelings and emotions of women folk. Bakh is known by many different names such as Gwatri, Kark and Masade and is actually a chorus narrative sung by a group of 10 singers without the accompaniment of any musical instruments. Gawatri is a tradition in which the singers narrate some text, which is enacted by the Gwatari dancers. Karak is a ballad with a story sung by the Jogi community who narrate a popular folk tale in their dance performance done by three members to the accompaniment of typical folk instrument called Rabab. The chorus singing tradition performed by specific tribal communities called Gujjars and Bakerwals is known as Benthe, which 5 to 7 members participate in the dance performance.

Kashmir region has its own musical performances that have won the hearts of many of its visitors. Bhand Pather is a traditional folk theatre style exhibiting combination of play and dance in a satirical style where social traditions, and evils are depicted and performed in various social and cultural functions. Bhand Jashan is performed by a group of 10 to 15 artists in their traditional style accompanied by light music for the entertainment of people. The most popular form of Kashmiri folk music is called Chakri that bears resemblance to Chakra of mountainous regions of Uttar Pradesh. It was accompanied by Garaha, Sarangi, Rabab once as the musical instruments but today harmonium plays an important role in its presentation. Sufiana Music migrated to Kashmir from Iran in the 15th century and flourished here as the classical music form of Kashmir. It absorbed a number of Indian Ragas and Hafiz Nagma was once a part of Sofiana Music. In Hafiz Nagma a dancer is a female while her accompanists on various instruments are males. An Hafiza (dancer) moves her feet on musical notes. The instruments that go with this form are Santoor, Sitar, Kashmiri Saz, Wasool or Tabala. Today, only a few families in Kashmir are practicing this musical for.
Climate of Kashmir


The state of Jammu and Kashmir stretches between 32.17o to 36.58o North and the altitude rises steeply from 305 metres to 6910 metres above sea level. There are the hot plains of the Jammu Province and coldest dry tableland of Ladakh. The area has different weather conditions at different places because of the lofty mountains like the Pirpanjal, the Zanskar and the Karakoram that check the moisture-laden from entering the valleys.

In summers, the outer plains and the outer hills receive rainfall from monsoon winds while in winters, winds from the Mediterranean cause snowfall and rainfall in the Valley of Kashmir. The moisture-laden winds cause rainfall in the forests on the hills making the temperature to fall in summer; hence, the thickly wooded areas such as Pahalgam and Gulmarg have milder weather conditions than that of Srinagar or Sopore. Similarly, the climate of the valley of Kashmir is comparatively milder than that of the Outer Plains as it is on higher altitude.

The unique climatic conditions found in the zone of the Middle Mountains and its valleys, are determined by the altitude, which in turn determines the degree of coolness and elevation the form of precipitation and summer temperature. Winters are cold and of long duration and with increasing altitude, it gets colder still, till there is snowfall in the higher mountains. Summers, however, are milder but are very short. Winters last from November to March. Spring begins after 15th of March and there is heavy rainfall during the season. Landslides often take place during this season. Humidity in the monsoon season stretching over July and August is as high as 70% and with increasing temperature in summers can be uncomfortable. During this season, the entire valley is covered with a thick fog blocking the surrounding mountains from view.

The seasons are marked with sudden change and a year can be roughly divided into six seasons of two months each:

1. Spring - From March 15 to May 15.
2. Summer - From May 15 to July 15.
3. Rainy Season - From July 15 to Sept. 15.
4. Autumn - From Sept. 15 to Nov. 15.
5. Winter - From Nov. 15 to Jan 15.
6. Ice Cold - From Jan. 15 to March 15.
People of Kashmir


According to historians, the ancestors of Kashmiris are early immigrants from India proper. With the spread of Buddhism, many scholars came to Kashmir from far-off lands for research and study. The contact of Kashmiris with the Roman, Greek and Persian civilizations resulted into a fusion of cultures. Most of the people claim their descent from the Indo-Aryan stock but one can easily find people belonging to diverse and different races inhabiting Kashmir with distinct looks, dresses, food habits, customs, speech and traditions.

Kashmiris have made remarkable contributions to the arts of story-telling and mystical poetry, the Shaiva philosophy, grammar and the sciences. The artistic and cultural genius of the people of Kashmir is evident in their folk songs and dances as well as the various arts and crafts that are world-renowned. Known for their charming beauty, most of the people in the valley are very fair complexioned, with light brown to dark hair, blue or grey to black almond eyes, rosy cheeks behind Indian tan, chiseled features and fine physique. Superstitious by nature, Kashmiris are generally non-aggressive and temperate in nature and are God-fearing. Regarded as non-martial in character, they are considered extremely warm, friendly, and hospitable.

Kashmiri Pandits live a simple and frugal life. Individualistic and largely intellectual, they avoid manual labor and cling to professional and administrative jobs. Due to the terrorist activities lately, many of them have been uprooted from their homeland but the government has been trying to relocate them here. The Kashmiri Pandits do not have castes like Hindus in the rest of India.

Kashmiri Muslims are generally more active, energetic and dynamic in nature and are considered unrivalled craftsmen, known for their time-honored intricate and beautiful designs that they produce on papier-mâché, wood, silver and gold. Shrews businessmen, they also indulge themselves in agriculture, sheep rearing, cattle rearing and other cottage industries. Ninety percent of the population in the valley professes Islam of both Sunni and Shia sects.

Kashmiri women generally have such love of jewellery that their headgear, ears, necks and arms glisten with ornaments. The typical ornament that Hindu women wear is the Dejharoo, a pair of gold pendants, hanging on a silk thread or gold chain which passes through holes in the ears pieced at the top end of the lobes. The Dejharoo symbolizes that the Kashmiri Pandit woman is married. Muslim women wear bunches of earrings, the weight of which is supported by a thick silver chain along with several bracelets and necklaces. The whole ensemble lends a most artistic effect to the appearance of Kashmiri women.

Rice and meat is the staple diet of the Kashmiris and Kashmiris pride over Karam Sag (a kind of leafy green vegetable), nadru (lotus stalk) and turnips that are considered precious enough to be presented as token gifts. The culinary art of Kashmir, especially, the cooking of lamb dishes in various ways, is very famous. The tea that the Kashmiris drink is called Kahva, which is a concoction of green tea leaves brewed in the samovar and enriched with pounded almonds, cardamom seeds, and cinnamon stalks overdosed with sugar and served without milk. The other kind of tea is Shir chai, which is salted and milked, pink in color and is topped with lots of cream.

Kashmiri Muslims used to wear the pheran, a long loose gown hanging down below the knees, a white turban tied on a skull cap, a close-fitting shalwar and lace less shoes called gurgabi. A white piece of material is hung on their shoulders like a stole. Hindu men wear churidar pyjama instead of shalwar. The less affluent Muslims wear skullcaps, which looks cute and does not carry any shawl. Unlike a Hindu woman's pheran, which gives her a Roman look, the Muslim woman's pheran is beautifully embroidered in front. Whereas a Muslim woman's pheran is knee-length, loose and embroidered in front and on the edges, a Hindu woman's pheran touches her feet. For the sake of smartness and ease it is tied at the waist with folded material called lhungi. The long loose sleeves are fashionably decorated with brocade.

With this type of Hindu costume goes the headdress called taranga, which is tied to a hanging bonnet and tapers down to the heels from behind. The folds of the taranga are made of brightly pressed lines fastened to a pointed red-colored and brocaded skull cap with a few gold pins at the sides. Over the head and ears are pieces of muslin embroidered in gold thread. Muslim woman's headgear, the Kasaba, looks very different from the Taranga. It is red in color, tied turban-like and held tight by an abundance of silver pins and trinkets. It has an overhanging pin-scarf, which falls gracefully over the shoulders. A work-a-day shalwar goes with it. Unmarried Muslim girls wear skullcaps, embroidered with gold thread and embellished with silver pendants, trinkets and amulets. With the passage of years, an appreciable change has come about in the dress of the Kashmiri women. Saris, shalwar-kameez, churidars and jeans are becoming popular, yet none of these belong to them as much as the good old pheran.

Gujjars are the hill people of Kashmir, which are mostly herdsmen by occupation. Said to be Rajputs migrated from Rajasthan and adopted the Muslim faith, they are tall and well built, with a prominently Jewish cast of features. Their dialect, Gujari is now identified as a form of a Rajasthani. Their nutritious diet consists of maize bread, whey, jungle roots and fruits. The dress of a Gujjar woman of the hills in the valley consists of as ample shalwar and full-skirted tunic with loose sleeves. Very much similar to that worn by the Turkish village women, a thick veil on their head falls back to their shoulders. They knit their hair in multiple plaits, which hang in front and cover half of their moon-shaped faces.
Handicrafts of Kashmir


Jammu and Kashmir is not only home to the vast cultural and ethnic diversity but also the myriad arts and crafts that have been carefully nurtured for the centuries. A variety of motifs, techniques and crafts flourished in the land as the people from different regions flocked through this beautiful place and many of the skilled craftsmen decided to settle amidst its charming abundance of natural beauty. With time, these arts have gained even more distinctiveness and today Kashmir is known for woolen textiles, Pashmina shawls, embroidered suits, Kashmir silk saris, papier mache, woodcarving, hand knotted carpets and lots of other traditional crafts.

Carpet
Kashmiri carpets are world renowned for two things - they are hand made and they are always knotted, never tufted. The yarn used normally is silk, wool or silk and wool. Woolen carpets always have a cotton base while silk usually have cotton base. Sometimes however, if the base is also in silk then the cost increases proportionately. Occasionally, carpets are made on a cotton base, mainly of woolen pile with silk yarn used as highlights on certain motifs. The soothing blend of colors makes the Kashmiri carpet a prized possession.

Carpet weaving in Kashmir was not originally indigenous but is thought to have come in by way of Persia. Till today most designs are distinctly Persian with local variations. One example, however, of a typical Kashmiri design is the tree of life. The colors of Kashmiri carpets are more subtle and muted than elsewhere in the country. The knotting of the carpet is the most important aspect, determining its durability and value, in addition to its design. Basically, the more knots per square inch, the greater its value and durability. Also there are single and double-knotted carpets. A single knotted carpet is fluffier and more resistant to touch.

Namdas
Far less expensive are these colorful floor coverings made from woolen and cotton fiber, which has been manually pressed into shape. Prices vary with the percentage of wool - a Namda containing 80% wool being more expensive than one containing 20% wool. Chain stitch embroidery in woolen and cotton thread is worked on these rugs.

Papier Mache
Besides at least three different grades of Papier Mache, there are some cheaper versions in cardboard or wood available too. To make Papier Mache, first paper is soaked in water till it disintegrates. It is then pounded, mixed with an adhesive solution, shaped over moulds, and allowed to dry and set before being painted and varnished. Paper that has been pounded to pulp has the smoothest finish in the final product. The designs painted on objects of Papier Mache are brightly colored. They vary in artistry and the choices of colors. Gold is used on most objects, either as the only color, or as the highlight for certain motifs, and besides the finish of the product, it is the quality of the gold used which determines the price.

Pure Gold leaf, which has the unmistakable luster, is far more expensive than bronze dust or gold poster paint but also has much longer life and will never fade or tarnish. Varnish, which is applied to the finished product, imparts a high gloss and smoothness, which increases with every coat. Cardboard, usually indistinguishable from Papier Mache, gives slightly when pressed firmly.


Shawls
There are three fibers from which the Kashmiri shawls are made - Wool, Pashmina and Shahtoosh. Woolen shawls being are the cheapest while the Shahtoosh are the most expensive ones. Woolen shawls are popular because of the embroidery, worked on them, which is a specialty to Kashmir. Both embroidery and the type of wool used causes differences in price.

Many kinds of embroidery are worked on shawls - 'sozni' or needlework is generally done in a panel along the sides of the shawl. Motifs, usually abstract designs or stylized paisleys and flowers are worked in one or two, occasionally three colors, all subdued. Another type of needle embroidery is popularly known as Papier Mache work because of the design and the style in which it is executed. This is done either in broad panels or either side of the breadth of a shawl, or covering the entire surface of a shawl. Ari or hook embroidery; motifs are well-known flower design finely worked in concentric rings of chain stitch.

Pashmina shawls are unmistakably soft and its yarn is spun from the hair of the ibex found at 14,000 ft above the sea level. Although pure Pashmina is expensive, sometimes blending it with rabbit fur or with wool brings down the cost. Shahtoosh is the legendary 'ring shawl', renowned for its lightness, softness and warmth. The astronomical price it commands in the market is due to the scarcity of raw material. High in the plateaux of Tibet and the eastern part of Ladakh, at an altitude of above 5,000 meters, roam Pantholops Hodgosoni or Tibetan antelope. During grazing, a few strands of the downy hair from the throat are shed and it is these, which are painstakingly collected until there are enough for a shawl.

Yarn is spun either from Shahtoosh alone, or with Pashmina to bring down the cost. In the case of pure Shahtoosh too, there are many qualities - the yarn can be spun so skillfully as to resemble a strand of silk. Not only are shawls made from such fine yarn extremely expensive, they can only be loosely woven and are too flimsy for embroidery to be done on them. Unlike woolen or Pashmina shawls, Shahtoosh is seldom dyed. Its natural color is mousy brown, and it is, at the most, sparsely embroidered.

Chain Stitch and Crewel Furnishings
Chain stitch, be it in wool, silk or cotton, is done by hook rather than any needle. Because of the high quality of embroidery done on wall hangings and rugs, Kashmiri crewelwork is in great demand all over the world. All the embroidery is executed on white cotton fabric, pre-shrunk by the manufacturers. The intrinsic worth of each piece lies in the size of the stitches and the yarn used.

Saffron, Walnuts, Almonds, Honey
Pampore, outside Srinagar, is the only place in the world besides Spain where saffron is grown. It is the most expensive spice in the world. Sealed jars of this Spice, with the Government laboratory's stamp approval, are available all over Srinagar. The climate of Kashmir is ideal for walnut and almond trees, which grow here in abundance. Natural honey too, is a produce of the apiaries, which abound in the state.

Silks, Tweeds
Tweed is woven in Kashmir with pure, never blended, wool. The resultant fabric competes favorably with the best fabric in the world. Sericulture is another important industry of the state. The cocoon reared in Kashmir is of the superior quality, yielding an extremely fine fiber, and any silk woven from this thread becomes known. The fineness of the yarn lends itself particularly well to the weaves known as 'chinon' and 'crepe de chine', in addition to the universally recognized silk weave. Interestingly, just as little or no raw material for tweed comes from Kashmir, almost no weaving and printing of silk is done in the state.

Pherans
This garment seems to be fusion of a coat and a cloak and is loose enough to admit the inevitable brazier of live coals, which is carried around in much the same way as a hot water bottle. Men's pherans are always made of tweed or coarse wool while women's pherans, somewhat more stylized, are most commonly made of raffel with splashes of ari or hook embroidery at the throat, cuffs and edges. The quality of embroidery and thickness of the raffel determines the price.

Basketry
Willow rushes that grow profusely in marshes and lakes of Kashmir are used to make charmingly attractive objects such as shopping baskets, lampshades, tables and chairs and are generally inexpensive. To increase their life span, unvarnished products should be chiseled and frequently sprayed with water, particularly in hot, dry climates, to prevent them from being brittle.

Walnut Wood
Kashmir is the only part of India where the walnut tree grows. Its color, grains and inherent sheen are unique and unmistakable, and the carving and fret work that is done on this wood is of a very superior quality. There are two types of walnut trees - the fruit bearing species whose wood is so well known, and one that bears no fruit and is locally known as 'zangul'. Zangul has none of the beauty of walnut wood, being much less strong and possessing no grain while the walnut wood is almost black and its grains are much more pronounced than the wood of the trunk, which is lighter in color. The branches have the lightest color, being almost blonde and have no noticeable grain. The intrinsic worth of the wood from each part of the tree differs - that from the root being the most expensive and the branches having the lowest price.

A cheaper product is liable to warp, or in case it is taken to warmer climes, will crack or shrink. Knots are usually concealed skillfully in the sawing, as it is difficult, though not impossible, to mask them while carving. Carving is the demonstration of the carver's skill, and walnut is eminently suitable for this, being one of the strongest varieties of wood.

There are several varieties of carving-deep carving usually with dragon or lotus flower motifs, two inches deep or more; shallow carving, half an inch deep done all over the flat surface; open or lattice work, usually depicting the Chinar motif; and most popularly, semi carving, which is a thin panel along the rim of a surface, with perhaps a Centre motif. The advantage of the semi-carving is that it allows the grain of wood to be displayed, together with the carver's skill. Naturally deep carving with all the skill and labor required is the most expensive.

Copper and Silverware
Shops in local market of the old city abound with objects of copper lining the walls, the floor and even the ceiling. One can see craftsmen engraving objects of household utility like samovars, bowls, plates and trays. There are floral, stylized, geometric, leaf and even calligraphic motifs that are engraved or embossed on copper, and occasionally silver, to cover the entire surface with intricate designs which are then oxidized, the better to stand out from the background. The work known as 'naqash' determines the price of the object, as does the weight.